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T.E. Burns, C. Ribble, C. Stephen, D. Kelton, L. Toews, J. Osterhold, H. Wheeler. Use of observed wild bird activity on poultry farms and a literature review to target species as high priority for avian influenza testing in 2 regions of Canada. Can Vet J 2012;53:158-166.


Abstract


The risk of avian influenza outbreaks in poultry is partially dependant on the probability of contact between domestic poultry and wild birds shedding avian influenza virus. The major objective of this study was to document wild bird activity on poultry farms to determine which wild bird species should be targeted for AI surveillance in Canada. To do this we collected data in two major poultry producing regions of Canada, southwestern Ontario and the Fraser Valley of British Columbia, on the relative abundance of different wild bird species found on poultry farms and on how these species utilized habitat around poultry farms. We reviewed the published literature to determine what was known about avian influenza pathobiology in the species we observed. From these results we created a list of ten wild bird species that are a priority for further study. These species are the European Starling, Barn Swallow, Rock Dove, American Crow, Northwestern Crow, American Robin, Dark-eyed Junco, Song Sparrow, Horned Lark and Common Grackle. Abundance of these and other species varied between provinces and seasons.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the generous support of Canada's Inter-agency Wild Bird Influenza Survey for providing funding for this research.

Index to Online Materials

The following tables are published on this webpage as an addendum to the full paper found in the Canadian Veterinary Journal.

Table s1 Total point counts, migratory behavior and seasonal occurrence of 121 wild bird species observed on 20 poultry farms in the Fraser Valley of BC and 21 poultry farms in southwestern Ontario in autumn 2007 and winter, spring and summer 2008.

Table s2 Wild bird species which were observed in flocks of 100 to 1000 individuals near 41 poultry farms in BC and Ontario.

Table s3 Wild bird species which were observed in flocks of 21 to 100 individuals near 41 poultry farms in BC and Ontario.

Table s4 Literature review results for the sixty-four wild bird species observed in this study of which free-living individuals have been tested in North America.

Table s5 Literature review results for the four wild bird species observed in this study, in which the literature review found limited (2) or no (2) North American data available, but data was returned from other parts of the world.

Table s6 Literature review results for the experimental infection studies in three wild bird species observed in this study with limited data available from free-living birds.

Table s7 Fifty-five wild bird species in which no evidence was returned on avian influenza infection using a structured literature review process.

Appendix 1: Literature Review Search Terms

Reference list for tables s4-s6


Table s1 

Total point counts, migratory behavior and seasonal occurrence of 121 wild bird species observed on 20 poultry farms in the Fraser Valley of BC and 21 poultry farms in southwestern Ontario in autumn 2007 and winter, spring and summer 2008. 

 

Species

Migratory behaviora

Total number observed on study farms in all seasons

Seasonal occurrenceb

BC

Ont

BC

Ont

American Crow

b

 

662

x

yr

American Goldfinch

m

323

144

s

yr

American Kestrel

m

 

11

yr

s

American Pipit

m

131

32

w

o

American Robin

m

987

287

yr

s

American Tree Sparrow

m

 

2

w

o

American Wigeon

m

32

 

w

s

Bald Eagle

m

36

 

yr

yr

Baltimore Oriole

m

 

3

x

s

Barn Swallow

m

653

391

s

s

Belted Kingfisher

b

1

 

yr

yr

Bewick's Wren

b

37

 

yr

x

Black-capped Chickadee

nm

285

66

yr

yr

Black-headed Grosbeak

m

7

 

s

x

Black-throated Green Warbler

m

2

 

o

s

Blue Jay

m

 

206

x

yr

Brewer's Blackbird

b

320

 

yr

x

Brown-headed Cowbird

b

13

76

s

s

Brown Creeper

m

2

2

yr

yr

Brown Thrasher

m

 

2

x

s

Bushtit

nm

6

 

yr

x

California Gull

m

3

 

w

x

Canada Goose

m

3716

524

yr

s

Cedar Waxwing

m

168

1

yr

yr

Chestnut-backed Chickadee

nm

20

 

yr

x

Chipping Sparrow

m

 

349

x

s

Cliff Swallow

m

11

 

s

s

Common Grackle

m

 

435

x

s

Common Raven

nm

33

 

yr

yr

Common Yellowthroat

m

93

 

s

s

Cooper's Hawk

b

2

 

yr

s

Dark-eyed Junco

b

645

92

yr

yr

Downy Woodpecker

nm

63

1

yr

yr

Eastern Kingbird

m

 

12

x

s

Eastern Meadowlark

m

 

11

x

s

Eastern Wood-pewee

m

 

9

x

s

European Starling

b

5293

2891

yr

yr

Evening Grosbeak

b

121

 

yr

w

Field Sparrow

m

 

25

x

s

Fox Sparrow

b

9

 

yr

o

Glaucous-winged Gull

b

521

 

yr

x

Golden-crowned Kinglet

m

139

 

yr

yr

Golden-crowned Sparrow

m

155

 

w

x

Gray Catbird

m

 

8

x

s

Great Blue Heron

b

20

17

yr

s

Greater Yellowlegs

m

2

 

w

o

Green-winged Teal

m

21

 

yr

s

Hairy Woodpecker

nm

 

4

yr

yr

Hermit Thrush

b

4

 

s

s

Herring Gull

m

1

20

w

yr

Horned Lark

m

 

622

x

yr

House Finch

b

675

 

yr

yr

House Sparrow

nm

545

1823

yr

yr

House Wren

m

 

3

s

s

Indigo Bunting

m

 

5

x

s

Killdeer

m

224

325

yr

s

Lincoln's Sparrow

m

15

 

w

s

Mallard

b

3497

4

yr

s

Marsh Wren

m

30

 

yr

s

Merlin

b

4

1

yr

s

Mew Gull

m

241

 

w

x

Mourning Dove

b

 

158

yr

yr

Nashville Warbler

m

2

 

s

s

Northern Cardinal

nm

 

50

x

yr

Northern Flicker

b

168

4

yr

yr

Northern Harrier

b

2

6

yr

s

Northern Pintail

m

204

 

s

s

Northern Shrike

m

 

10

w

w

Northwestern Crow

b

1853

 

yr

 

Orange-crowned Warbler

m

2

 

s

x

Pacific-slope Flycatcher

m

1

 

s

x

Peregrine Falcon

b

5

 

yr

s

Pileated Woodpecker

nm

12

4

yr

yr

Pine Siskin

b

116

 

yr

yr

Purple Finch

b

4

2

yr

yr

Purple Martin

m

 

8

s

s

Red-bellied Woodpecker

nm

 

6

x

yr

Red-breasted Nuthatch

b

21

5

yr

yr

Red-breasted Sapsucker

nm

1

 

yr

x

Red-tailed Hawk

m

31

8

yr

yr

Red-winged Blackbird

m

333

544

s

s

Ring-billed Gull

m

6

485

w

yr

Rock Dove

nm

388

695

yr

yr

Rose-breasted Grosbeak

m

 

2

x

s

Rough-legged Hawk

m

 

3

w

w

Ruby-crowned Kinglet

m

41

8

yr

s

Ruby-throated Hummingbird

m

 

1

x

s

Rufous Hummingbird

m

17

 

s

x

Sandhill Crane

m

 

13

x

s

Savannah Sparrow

m

345

434

s

s

Sharp-shinned Hawk

b

1

2

yr

s

Snow Bunting

b

 

15

x

w

Solitary Sandpiper

m

 

1

x

s

Song Sparrow

b

632

251

yr

s

Spotted Sandpiper

m

 

6

s

s

Spotted Towhee

b

186

 

yr

x

Steller's Jay

nm

122

 

yr

x

Swainson’s Thrush

m

1

 

s

s

Townsend's Solitaire

b

5

 

yr

x

Tree Swallow

m

122

4

s

s

Trumpeter Swan

b

299

 

w

x

Turkey Vulture

m

4

7

s

s

Tundra Swan

m

 

28

x

o

Varied Thrush

m

16

 

yr

x

Vaux's Swift

m

3

 

s

x

Vesper Sparrow

m

1

4

o

s

Violet-green Swallow

m

129

 

s

x

Warbling Vireo

m

3

 

s

s

Western Meadowlark

b

21

 

s

x

Western Tanager

m

3

 

s

x

Western Wood-pewee

m

10

 

s

x

White-breasted Nuthatch

nm

 

5

x

yr

White-crowned Sparrow

nm

663

62

yr

w

White-throated Sparrow

m

 

1

x

s

Willow Flycatcher

s

6

 

s

s

Wilson's Snipe

m

15

 

yr

s

Winter Wren

b

11

 

yr

s

Wood Duck

m

15

 

s

s

Yellow-rumped Warbler

m

172

 

yr

s

Yellow Warbler

m

 

8

s

s

 

a m denotes migratory species, nm denotes non-migratory species and b denotes species with both migratory and non-migratory populations (1).

b s denoted species that are summer residents, w denotes winter residents, yr denotes year round residents, o denotes occasional or transient visitors, and x denotes a species that is not found in the area (1).


Table s2     

Wild bird species which were observed in flocks of 100 to 1000 individuals near 41 poultry farms in BC and Ontario.

 

Species

Number of times flocks

of  100 to 1000 birds were observed

Season and Province

European Starling

15

Autumn (5 BC, 2 Ont.), Winter (3 BC), Summer (3 BC, 2 Ont.)

Northwestern Crow

2

Autumn, Winter (BC)

House Sparrow

1

Autumn (Ont.)

Mew Gull

1

Spring (BC)

Northern Pintail

1

Autumn (BC)

Ring-billed Gull

1

Autumn (Ont.)

Trumpeter Swan

1

Autumn (BC)


Table s3   

Wild bird species which were observed in flocks of 21 to 100 individuals near 41 poultry farms in BC and Ontario.

 

Species

No. of flocks with 21 - 100 individuals

Species

No. of flocks with 21 - 100 individuals

European Starling

92

Ring-billed Gull

4

House Sparrow

43

American Pipit

3

Northwestern Crow

39

Brewer’s Blackbird

3

American Robin

23

American Goldfinch

2

Red-winged Blackbird

18

Cedar Waxwing

2

Barn Swallow

17

Common Yellowthroat

2

Canada Goose

17

Golden-crowned Sparrow

2

Rock Dove

16

Tree Swallow

2

Horned Lark

14

Violet-green Swallow

2

Savannah Sparrow

11

American Wigeon

1

Dark-eyed Junco

10

Blue Jay

1

White-crowned Sparrow

10

Evening Grosbeak

1

Kildeer

9

Golden-crowned Kinglet

1

Glaucous-winged Gull

8

Marsh Wren

1

House Finch

7

Mourning Dove

1

Mallard

7

Pine Siskin

1

Song Sparrow

7

Trumpeter Swan

1

Chipping Sparrow

6

Yellow-rumped Warbler

1

Common Grackle

6

 

 


Table s4    

Literature review results for the sixty-five wild bird species observed in this study of which free-living individuals have been tested in North America. 

 

Common name

Scientific name

Literature reviewed

American Goldfinch

Carduelis tristis

0/11(2)

American Pipit

Anthus rubescens

0/3(3)

American Robin

Turdus migratorius

0/6(4)

0/1(2)

0/16(3)

American Tree Sparrow

Spizella arborea

0/125(3)

American Wigeon

Anas Americana

89/396(5)

11/62(6)

6/32(4)

1/33(7)

1/22(8)

2/192(9)

0/92(3)

2/19(10)

1/37(11)

Belted Kingfisher

Ceryle alcyon

0/1(4)

Black-capped Chickadee

Poecile atricapillus

0/7(4)

0/1(3)

Brown Creeper

Certhia Americana

0/1(3)

Canada Goose

Branta canadiensis

18/1154(5)

4/7(4)

0/5(9)

9/260(3)

1/7(11)

0/60(12)

Cedar Waxwing

Bombycilla cedrorum

0/6(4)

Chipping Sparrow

Spizella passerine

0/1(4)

Cliff Swallow

Petrochiledon pyrrhonota

0/1(3)

Common Raven

Corvus corax

0/6(3)

Dark-eyed Junco

Junco hyemalis

1/15(4)

0/16(3)

Downy Woodpecker

Picoides pubescens

0/1(3)

Eastern Kingbird

Tyrannus tyrannus

0/1(4)

European Starling

Sturnus vulgaris

0/868(2)

Fox Sparrow

Passerella iliaca

0/1(4)

0/41(3)

Glaucous-winged Gull

Larus glaucesens

1/770(13)

Golden-crowned Sparrow

Zonotrichia atricapilla

0/23(3)

Gray Catbird

Dumetella carolinensis

0/8(4)

Greater Yellowlegs

Totanus melanoleucus

0/5(4)

0/7(14)

0/2(3)

Green-winged Teal

Anas carolinesis

205/506(5)

10/50(4)

2/29(15)

4/334 (16)

9/154(7)

Hermit Thrush

Catharus guttatas

1/10(4)

0/11(3)

Herring Gull

Larus argentatus

48/401(5)

1/40(17)

0/9(4)

0/63(18)

0/7(3)

Horned Lark

Eremophila alpestrus

0/2(3)

House Finch

Carpodacus mexicanus

0/416(2)

House Sparrow

Passer domesticus

0/373(2)

0/17(19)

Kildeer

Charadrius vociferous

0/1(4)

Lincoln’s Sparrow

Melospiza lincolnii

0/6(4)

0/20(3)

Mallard

Anas platyrhnchos

2504/7745(5)

16/46 (4)

97/673(20)

150/1290(21)

30/416(7)

7/91(8)

6/669(22)

4/60(12)

1/43(23)

1/6(9)

30/306(24)

50/325(3)

25/240(10)

3/122(11)

8/72(25)

24/184(26)

5/105(27)

Merlin

Falco columbarius

0/1(4)

Mew Gull

Larus canus

0/10(3)

Nashville Warbler

Vermivora ruficapilla

0/2(4)

Northern Flicker

Colaptes auratus

0/1(5)

0/1(3)

Nothern Pintail

Anas acuta

100/585 (5)

9/36(4)

1/30(15)

5/111(7)

4/133(21)

1/74(9)

3/135(18)

144/2219(3)

0/5(28)

8/72(25)

1/27(27)

Northern Shrike

Lanius excubitor

0/3(3)

Orange-crowned Warbler

Vermivora celata

0/4(4)

0/46(3)

Purple Finch

Carpodacus purpureus

2/20(4)

Red-eyed Vireo

Vireo olivaceus

0/6(4)

Red-tailed Hawk

Buteo jamaicensis

1/34(29)

Ring-billed Gull

Larus delawarensis

2/193(17)

2/189(30)

64/3024 (31)

0/50(24)

 

 

 

Rock Dove

 

1 (32)

Rose-breasted Grosbeak

Pheuticus ludovicianus

0/10(4)

Ruby-crowned Kinglet

Regulus calendula

0/2(3)

Ruby-throated Hummingbird

Archilocus colubris

0/2(4)

Sandhill Crane

Grus Canadensis

0/8(9)

0/292(3)

Savannah Sparrow

Passerculus sandwichensis

0/5(4)

0/126(3)

Sharp-shinned Hawk

Accipiter striatus

0/1(4)

 

 

 

Solitary Sandpiper

Tringa solitaria

0/16(14)

Song Sparrow

Melospiza melodia

1/41(4)

0/31(2)

Spotted Sandpiper

Actitis macularius

0/5(17)

Swainson’s Thrush

Catharus ustulata

1/45(4)

0/20(3)

Tree Swallow

Tachycineta bicolor

0/1(3)

Trumpeter Swan

Cygnus buccinator

0/14(3)

0/7(33)

0/13(30)

Tundra Swan

Cygnus columbianus

2(34)

1/334(33)

White-crowned Sparrow

Zonotrichia leucophrys

0/54(3)

White-throated Sparrow

Zonotrichia albicollis

0/15(4)

Willow Flycatcher

Empidonax trailli

4/34(4)

Wilson’s Snipe

Galinago delicate

0/4 (17)

0/14(3)

Winter Wren

Troglodytes trogodytes

 

Wood Duck

Aix sponsa

82/226(5)

4/12(4)

15/693(35)

0/40(7)

0/2(9)

6/23(27)

Yellow-rumped Warbler

Dendroica coronata

2/22(4)

0/7(3)

Yellow Warbler

Dendroica petechia

2/38(4)

0/11(3)


Table s5   

Literature review results for the four wild bird species observed in this study, in which the literature review found limited (2) or no (2) North American data available, but data was returned from other parts of the world.

 

Common name

Scientific Name

Reference Details

European Starling

Sturnus vulgaris

20% Russia (36)

1/282 Israel (37)

0/1(19)

Peregrine Falcon

Falco peregrinus

1 in a rehabilitation center in Italy (38)

Pine siskin

Carduelis pinus

1 free living bird in Germany (39)

0/1(19)

Rock Dove

Columba livea

1 free living bird in Hong Kong:HP H5N1(40)

Other studies testing free living birds found no infection (41-43)

 


Table s6   

Literature review results for the experimental infection studies in three wild bird species observed in this study with limited data available from free-living birds.

 

Common name

Scientific Name

Number infected/inoculated and virus type

House Finch

Carpodacus mexicanus

7/11 H5N1 A/chicken/Hong Kong/220/97

(44)

House Sparrow

Passer domesticus

3/7 H5N1 A/chicken/Hong Kong/220/97

(44)

3/10 H7N7 (A/Starling/Victoria/5156/85) (45)

Rock Dove

Columba livea

3/14 H5N1 (46)

(47)

0 mortality H5N1 A/chicken/Hong Kong/220/97 (48)

0 mortality H5N1 (47)


Table s7   

Fifty-five wild bird species in which no evidence was returned on avian influenza infection using a structured literature review process.


Common name

Scientific name

American Crow

Corvus brachyrhynchos

American Kestrel

Falco sparverius

Bald Eagle

Haliaeetus leucocephalus

Baltimore Oriole

Icterus galbula

Barn Swallow

Hirunda rustica

Bewick’s Wren

Thyromanes bewickiii

Black-headed Grosbeak

Pheuctius melanocephalus

Black-throated Green Warbler

Dendroica virens

Blue Jay

Cyanocitta cristata

Brewer’s Blackbird

Euphagus cyanocephalus

Brown-headed Cowbird

Malathros ater

Brown Thrasher

Toxostoma rufum

Bushtit

Psaltriparus minimus

California Gull

Larus californicus

Chestnut-backed Chickadee

Poecile rufenscens

Common Grackle

Quiscalus quiscula

Common Yellowthroat

Geothylpis trichas

Cooper’s Hawk

Accipter cooperi

Eastern Meadowlark

Sturnella magna

Eastern Wood-peewee

Contopus virens

Evening Grosbeak

Coccothraustes vespertinus

Field Sparrow

Spizella pusilla

Golden-crowned Kinglet

Regulus satrapa

Great Blue Heron

Ardea hirodeas

Hairy Woodpecker

Picoides villosus

House Wren

Troglodytes aedon

Indigo Bunting

Passerins cyanea

Marsh Wren

Cistothorus palustrus

Mourning Dove

Zanaida macroura

Northern Cardinal

Cardinalis cardinalis

Northern Harrier

Circus cyaneus

Northwestern Crow

Corvus caurinus

Pacific Slope Flycatcher

Empinodax difficilis

Pileated Woodpecker

Dryocopus pileatus

Purple Martin

Progne subis

Red-breasted Sapsucker

Sphyraoicus rubber

Red-bellied Woodpecker

Melanerpes carolinus

Red-breasted Nuthatch

Sitta Canadensis

Red-winged Blackbird

Agelaius phoeniceus

Rough-legged Hawk

Buteo lagopus

Rufous Hummingbird

Selasphorus rufus

Snow Bunting

Plectrophenax nivalis

Spotted Towhee

Pipilo maculates

Stellar’s Jay

Cyanocitta stelleri

Townsend’s Solitaire

Myadestes townsendi

Turkey Vulture

Cathartes aura

Varied Thrush

Ixoreus naevius

Vaux’s Swift

Chaetui vauxi

Vesper Sparrow

Poecetes gramineus

Violet-green Swallow

Tachycineta thalassina

Warbling Vireo

Viro gilvus

Western Meadowlark

Sturnella neglecta

Western Tanager

Pilanga ludoviciana

Western Wood-peewee

Contopus sordidulus

White-breasted Nuthatch

Sitta carolinensis

 



Appendix 1: Literature Review Search Terms

 

Term Set #1

american goldfinch or carduelis tristis or american wigeon or anas americana or belted kingfisher or ceryle alcyon or black capped chickadee or poecile atricapillus or canada goose or branta canadiensis or cedar waxwing or bombycilla cedrorum or chipping sparrow or spizella passerine or dark eyed junco or junco hyemalis or downy woodpecker or picoides pubescens or eastern kingbird or tyrannus tyrannus or european starling or stumus vulgaris or fox sparrow or passerlla iliaca or glaucous winged gull or larus glaucesens or gray catbird or dumetella carolinensis or greater yellowlegs or totanus or green winged teal or anas carolinesis or hermit thrush or catharus guttatas or herring gull or larus argentatus or house finch or carpodacus mexicanus or house sparrow or passer domesticus or kildeer or charadrius vociferous or lincolns sparrow or melospiza lincolnii or mallard or anas platyrhnchos or merlin or falco columbarius or mew gull or larus canus or nashville warbler or vermivora ruficapilla or northern flicker or colaptes auratus or northern pintail or anas acuta or orange crowned warbler or vermivora celata or purple finch or carpodacus purpureus or red eyed vireo or vireo olivaceus or ring billed gull or larus delavarensis or robin or turdus migratorius or rose breasted grosbeak or pheuticus ludovicianus or ruby throated hummingbird or archilocus colubris or savannah sparrow or passerculus sandwichensis or sharp shinned hawk or accipiter striatus or song sparrow or melospiza melodia or spotted sandpiper or actitis macularius or swainson$ thrush or catharus ustulata or white throated sparrow or zonotrichia albicollis or willow flycatcher or empidonax trailli or wilsons snipe or galinago delicate or winter wren or troglodytes or wood duck or aix sponsa or yellow rumped warbler or dendroica coronata or yellow warbler or dendroica petechia or peregrine falcon or falco peregrinus or pine siskin or carduelis pinus or rock dove or columba livea or american pipit or anthus rubescens or american tree sparrow or spizella arborea or bald eagle or haliaeetus leucocephalus or baltimore oriole or icterus galbula or barn swallow or hirunda rustica or bewicks wren or thyromanes bewickii or black headed grosbeak or pheuctius melanocephalus or black throated green warbler or dendroica virens or blue jay or cyanocitta cristata or brewers blackbird or euphagus cyanocephalus or brown creeper or certhia americana or brown headed cowbird or malanthros ater or brown thrasher or toxostoma rufum or bushtit or psaltriparus minimus or california gull or larus californicus or chestnut backed chickadee or poecile rufenscens or cliff swallow or petrochiledon pyrrhonota or common grackle or quiscalus quiscula or common raven or corvus corax or common yellowthroat or geothylpis trichas or coopers hawk or accipter cooperi or crow or corvus brachyrhynchos or eastern meadowlark or sturnella magna or eastern wood peewee or contopus virens or evening grosbeak or coccothraustes vespertinus or field sparrow or spizella pusilla or golden crowned kinglet or regulus satrapa or golden crowned sparrow or zonotrichia atricapilla or great blue heron or ardea hirodeas or hairy woodpecker or picoides villosus or horned lark or eremophila alpestrus or house wren or troglodytes aedon or indigo bunting or passerins cyanea or kestrel or falco sparverius or marsh wren or cistothorus palustrus or mourning dove or zanaida macroura or northern cardinal or cardinalis cardinalis or northern harrier or circus cyaneus or northern shrike or lanius excubitor or pacific slope flycatcher or empinodax difficilis or pileated woodpecker or purple martin or progne subis or red breasted sapsucker or sphyraoicus ruber or red bellied woodpecker or melanerpes carolinus or red breasted nuthatch or sitta canadensis or red tailed hawk or buteo jamaicensis or red-winged blackbird or agelaius phoeniceus or rough legged hawk or buteo lagopus or ruby crowned kinglet or regulus calendula or rufous hummingbird or selasphorus rufus or sandhill crane or grus canadensis or snow bunting or plectrophenax nivalis or solitary sandpiper or tringa solitaria or spotted towhee or pipilo maculatus or stellars jay or cyanocitta stelleri or townsends solitaire or myadestes townsendi or tree swallow or tachycineta bicolor or trumpeter swan or cygnus buccinator or turkey vulture or cathartes aura or varigated thrush or ixoreus naevius or vauxs swift or chaetui vauxi or vesper sparrow or poecetes gramineus or violet green swallow or tachycineta thalassina or warbling vireo or viro gilvus or western meadowlark or sturnella neglecta or western tanager or pilanga ludoviciana or western wood peewee or contopus sordidulus or white breasted nuthatch or sitta carolinensis or white crowned sparrow or zonotrichia leucophrys or waterfowl or explode ducks or explode geese or explode passeriformes or predatory birds or explode falconiformes or hawks or wild birds or waterbird$ or shorebird$ or wading bird$ or passerine$ or raptor$ or birds prey or falcon$ or hawk$

 

Term Set #2

surveillance or detect$ or monitor$ or screen$ or test$ or sampl$ or isolat$ or carry or carrier$ or reservoir$ or screening or explode testing or explode sampling or isolation or carriers or explode reservoir hosts or explode surveillance or detection or monitoring

 

Term Set #3

avian influenza or influenza a or avian influenza viruses or avian influenza a viruses or influenza A virus or influenzavirus A or avian flu or avian influenza

 

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